Bonded foil strain gauge (BFSG) pressure transducers & transmitters have metal foil gauges made from materials such as Constantan which are bonded using industrial adhesives to a stainless diaphragm or beam which is the material which flexes in response to change in pressure.
The foil strain gauge sensing element typically includes two or four foil strain gauges which are joined together into a Wheatstone bridge circuit.
These type of pressure sensors are most suited to mid to high range pressure measurement and because the sensing diaphragm is stainless steel they are very robust and can withstand high dynamic pressure changes.
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How It’s Made
Bonded foil strain gauges are manufactured using photo-etching, similar to printed circuit boards. This process involves designing the gauge pattern, transferring it to a metal foil using a photosensitive film, then etching away the unwanted areas. The resulting strain gauge is carefully placed on the diaphragm with adhesive and cured under controlled conditions. This bonding process is crucial for ensuring accurate and reliable pressure measurements, as a strong and stable bond protects the gauge from external influences.
How it works
BFSG pressure sensors operate on the principle of measuring the deformation of a diaphragm or beam caused by pressure changes. A thin foil strain gauge, typically made of a metal alloy like Constantan, is bonded to the diaphragm’s surface. When pressure is applied, the diaphragm flexes, causing the strain gauge to stretch or compress. This deformation alters the electrical resistance of the strain gauge, which is then measured using a Wheatstone bridge circuit. The change in resistance is directly proportional to the applied pressure, allowing the sensor to convert the mechanical deformation into an electrical signal that can be easily processed and interpreted.
Characteristics & Properties
Bonded foil strain gauge technology, while originating in the mid-20th century, predates many modern pressure sensing technologies like piezoresistive and capacitive sensors. However, it continues to hold a significant position in the industry due to a combination of factors.
Cost-Effectiveness
The manufacturing process for bonded foil strain gauges, primarily photo-etching, is well-established and relatively inexpensive compared to newer technologies. This results in lower production costs, particularly for high-volume applications, making them an attractive option for price-sensitive markets.
The materials used in bonded foil strain gauges, such as Constantan for the foil and stainless steel for the diaphragm, are relatively inexpensive and readily available. This further contributes to the overall cost-effectiveness of the sensors.
Proven Reliability
Decades of use in various industries have demonstrated the reliability and longevity of bonded foil strain gauges. Their simple and robust design, with minimal moving parts, translates to fewer failure points and a longer operational lifespan. This proven track record makes them a trusted choice for applications where reliability is paramount.
Simple and Robust Design
The design of bonded foil strain gauges is inherently simple, consisting of a thin metal foil etched with a strain-sensitive pattern and bonded to a diaphragm. This simplicity translates to fewer components, less complex assembly processes, and reduced labour costs.
The straightforward design of bonded foil strain gauges contributes to their durability and ease of use. With no complex electronics or delicate components, they can withstand harsh environments and challenging operating conditions.
High Shock & Vibration Tolerance
The adhesive used to bond the strain gauge to the diaphragm is specifically designed to withstand high stresses and strains, including those induced by shock and vibration. This strong bond ensures that the gauge remains securely attached to the diaphragm and continues to function accurately even under extreme conditions.
The materials used in the sensor, such as stainless steel for the diaphragm and Constantan for the strain gauge, possess excellent mechanical properties, including high tensile strength and fatigue resistance. This enables them to withstand repeated cycles of stress and strain without failure.
Very High Pressure Dominance
Bonded foil gauges have an excellent high-strength construction and a proven reliability with a long history of successful use in high-pressure applications, establishing a strong reputation for durability and performance.
Very high-pressure applications above 1000 bar are often niche, requiring specialized sensors. Manufacturers often prioritize producing larger quantities of sensors for more common pressure ranges to achieve economies of scale. The commercial viability due to smaller production batches is a key factor. The simpler construction and established manufacturing processes for bonded foil gauges make them more adaptable to lower-volume production, catering to the niche nature of high-pressure applications.
The expensive manufacturing process of other newer technologies such as thin-film & silicon strain gauge, particularly for high-pressure variants, is another factor. The need for specialized equipment and precise fabrication techniques can drive up costs, making them less commercially attractive for smaller production batches.
Limitations
Accuracy & Repeatability
While BFSG pressure sensors offer numerous advantages, including robustness and cost-effectiveness, their accuracy and repeatability can be lower compared to some competing technologies, primarily due to limitations in materials and bonding processes:
Hysteresis and Creep
The bonding adhesive used in these sensors can exhibit hysteresis and creep over time. Hysteresis refers to the difference in output readings when the pressure is increasing versus decreasing, while creep refers to the gradual change in output under constant pressure. Both phenomena can introduce errors in measurement and affect the sensor’s repeatability.
Temperature Effects
Although bonded foil strain gauges can be temperature compensated, the bonding adhesive and the diaphragm material can still experience thermal expansion and contraction. These temperature-induced changes can affect the sensor’s sensitivity and zero offset, leading to variations in accuracy and repeatability across different temperature ranges.
Bonding Imperfections
The bonding process itself can introduce inconsistencies. Variations in adhesive thickness, curing conditions, and surface preparation can lead to non-uniform stress distribution in the strain gauge, resulting in measurement errors and reduced repeatability.
Material Limitations
The materials used in bonded foil strain gauges, while durable and cost-effective, may not offer the same level of sensitivity and stability as more advanced materials like silicon or thin-film strain gauges. These newer materials can exhibit lower hysteresis, better temperature stability, and higher gauge factors, resulting in improved accuracy and repeatability.
Ageing Effects
Over time, the bonding adhesive can degrade due to exposure to environmental factors like temperature, humidity, and chemical contaminants. This degradation can weaken the bond between the gauge and the diaphragm, leading to shifts in the sensor’s output and decreased repeatability.
Manufacturing Time
BFSG pressure sensors can experience longer delivery lead times compared to newer technologies due to several factors related to their manufacturing process:
Photo-etching Process
The primary method for manufacturing bonded foil strain gauges involves photo-etching, which is a multi-step process that can be time-consuming. Each step, from creating the photomask to etching the foil, requires careful handling and precise timing to ensure accuracy and quality. This can lead to extended production cycles, particularly for complex or custom designs.
Manual Manufacturing Processes
While some aspects of the manufacturing process are automated, many steps still require manual operations, such as positioning and aligning the foil during bonding. This reliance on human intervention can introduce variability and potential delays, especially in high-volume production scenarios.
Yields
The photo-etching process can result in lower yields compared to newer manufacturing techniques like micromachining or thin-film deposition. Imperfections in the photomask, etching inconsistencies, or handling errors can lead to defective strain gauges, requiring rework or discarding, which further extends lead times.
Output Sensitivity
Metal foil strain gauge pressure sensors generally exhibit lower output sensitivity compared to other technologies, such as piezoresistive or capacitive sensors, due to the characteristics of the strain gauges themselves.
Gauge Factor
The gauge factor, which is a measure of the strain gauge’s sensitivity to strain, is typically lower for metal foil strain gauges compared to semiconductor-based strain gauges used in piezoresistive sensors. This means that for a given amount of strain or pressure change, the change in resistance of the bonded foil strain gauge is smaller, resulting in a weaker electrical signal output.
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
The lower output signal from bonded foil strain gauges can make them more susceptible to noise interference, especially in applications with low-pressure ranges or high electrical noise environments. This can affect the overall accuracy and precision of the measurement.
Overpressure Rating
Bonded strain gauge pressure sensors can have a lower overpressure rating compared to some other pressure sensing technologies due to the inherent limitations of the metal diaphragms they utilize:
Elastic Limit
Metal diaphragms, while robust, have a finite elastic limit. This means they can only flex or deform to a certain extent before undergoing plastic deformation, which is permanent and can damage the sensor. If the applied pressure exceeds this elastic limit, the diaphragm may not return to its original shape, leading to inaccurate readings or complete sensor failure.
Fatigue
Repeated exposure to overpressure conditions can lead to fatigue in the diaphragm material. This is a weakening of the material due to cyclical stress, which can eventually cause cracks or fractures, rendering the sensor inoperable.
Creep
Even within their elastic limit, metal diaphragms can exhibit creep, which is a gradual deformation under constant pressure. This can lead to a slow drift in the sensor’s output over time, affecting its accuracy and long-term stability.
Thickness Limitations
To achieve higher overpressure ratings, thicker diaphragms are required. However, thicker diaphragms are less sensitive to pressure changes, resulting in lower output signals and reduced accuracy. Therefore, a trade-off exists between overpressure rating and sensitivity in bonded resistance strain gauge pressure sensors.
Calibration Drift
Bonded metal strain gauge pressure sensors can experience calibration shifts over their service life due to the cumulative effects of fatigue on both the diaphragm material and the bonding adhesives. This phenomenon is exacerbated by operational pressure and temperature cycling, leading to a gradual degradation of the sensor’s accuracy and reliability.
Diaphragm Fatigue
The diaphragm, typically made of stainless steel, undergoes cyclic stress as it flexes under pressure changes. Over time, this repeated stress can cause microscopic cracks or changes in the material’s crystal structure, weakening the diaphragm and altering its response to pressure. This can manifest as a shift in the sensor’s zero offset or sensitivity, leading to inaccurate readings.
Adhesive Degradation
The bonding adhesive, which secures the strain gauge to the diaphragm, is also susceptible to fatigue. Temperature fluctuations and pressure cycles can cause the adhesive to expand and contract, leading to stresses that weaken the bond over time. This can result in slippage of the strain gauge, changes in the strain transfer efficiency, and ultimately, calibration shifts.
Thermal Cycling
Repeated exposure to temperature variations can accelerate both diaphragm fatigue and adhesive degradation. The different thermal expansion coefficients of the diaphragm material, adhesive, and strain gauge can create additional stresses during heating and cooling cycles, further contributing to the overall degradation of the sensor’s performance.
Pressure Cycling
Similar to thermal cycling, pressure cycling subjects the diaphragm and adhesive to repeated stresses. Each pressure cycle causes the diaphragm to flex, and the adhesive to experience shear forces. Over time, these stresses can accumulate and lead to material fatigue, resulting in calibration shifts.
Advantages
- Robust for high pressure range applications such as hydraulics systems
- High reliability from straightforward sensor design refined over many decades
- Economical pricing due to lower cost of manufacture, less complex assembly processes.
- High shock and vibration tolerance due to material properties of metal diaphragm and the high strength of strain gauge bonding to the diaphragm.
Disadvantages
- Accuracy and repeatability performance lower than competing sensor technologies due to the less advance materials and bonding processes employed to manufacture
- Longer delivery lead times due to older manufacturing processes, lower yields
- Lower output sensitivity due to lower impedance strain gauges than other technologies.
- Lower overpressure rating due to limitation of elasticity of metal diaphragms.
- Calibration shifts over time due to fatigue of diaphragm materials and strain gauge bonding adhesives from operational pressure & temperature cycling over the service life.
FAQ
Questions and Answers about ceramic diaphragm with thick film strain gauge pressure sensor technology.
Sensing Diaphragm Material & Performance
How well does the sensing diaphragm material perform for elasticity, hysteresis, repeatability and robustness?
Bonded foil strain gauge sensors utilize metal diaphragms, typically constructed from stainless steel alloys, renowned for their exceptional strength and resilience. This inherent robustness translates into a broad elastic operating range, ensuring accurate and repeatable pressure measurements even under substantial loading. However, exposure to extreme pressures beyond the diaphragm’s yield strength can induce plastic deformation. This permanent deformation results in calibration shifts, hysteresis errors, and potentially compromised long-term stability. Consequently, careful selection of the diaphragm material and thickness is crucial to ensure compatibility with the anticipated pressure range and avoid yield-induced performance degradation.
Media Compatibility
How protected is the pressure sensor module assembly against different types of aggressive media, and how customisable is the construction to enhance protection to a particular media type?
Bonded foil strain gauge pressure sensors, with their metal diaphragms typically constructed from corrosion-resistant alloys like stainless steel, exhibit inherent robustness against a broad spectrum of aggressive media. The substantial thickness of these diaphragms, compared to the delicate isolation diaphragms found in oil-filled sensors, further enhances their resilience to corrosive attack, significantly extending their operational lifespan in harsh environments. However, the specialized nature of the bonded foil strain gauge manufacturing process limits the flexibility in diaphragm material selection due to associated cost implications. Consequently, careful consideration of the specific media compatibility is essential during sensor selection to ensure optimal performance and longevity.
Oil Leakage
Is there a risk of oil leakage from this sensor, which could impact performance or safety?
The risk of oil leaking from bonded foil strain gauge pressure sensors is virtually nonexistent. These sensors feature an all-metal construction, where the sensing module is typically fabricated from the same or a highly compatible metal as the process connector, enabling direct welding and creating a hermetic seal. This eliminates the necessity for oil-filled isolation diaphragms, which are common points of failure and leakage in other sensor technologies such as isolated silicon capsule pressure sensors. Consequently, bonded foil strain gauge sensors offer exceptional reliability and safety, particularly in applications where oil contamination could impair performance or pose a hazard.
Pressure Containment
How well are the internal components joined together to provide a seal to withstand pressurisation that exceeds normal operating conditions, without degradation due to pressure and temperature cycling over the lifetime of the sensing device?
The fully-welded construction of bonded foil strain gauge pressure sensors creates a hermetic seal of exceptional integrity. This seal exhibits negligible leak rates even when challenged with extremely light gases like helium and hydrogen, underscoring its robustness in maintaining pressure containment. Moreover, the welded joints demonstrate remarkable resilience to thermal cycling and extreme temperature fluctuations, ensuring long-term structural stability and preventing performance degradation over the sensor’s operational lifespan.
Small Size
How small a pressure sensor is it possible to make with this sensing technology?
The process of bonding multiple foil strain gauges onto a diaphragm necessitates a larger surface area compared to technologies employing micromachining techniques. This inherently limits the miniaturization potential of bonded foil strain gauge sensors. Furthermore, their lower output sensitivity, compared to technologies relying heavily on the piezoresistive effect, necessitates larger sensor dimensions to achieve adequate signal levels. Consequently, bonded foil strain gauge pressure sensors tend to be larger than those utilizing alternative sensing principles.
Corrosion Resistance
How resistant are the media exposed materials to corrosive substances?
Bonded foil strain gauge pressure sensors generally exhibit good compatibility with a wide range of common fluids and gases due to their robust metal construction. The thicker metal diaphragms used in this technology further enhance corrosion resistance by providing a substantial barrier against chemical attack. However, the selection of diaphragm materials is often limited due to the specific requirements of the bonded foil strain gauge manufacturing process. This constraint can pose challenges when optimizing compatibility with highly corrosive or specialized media, necessitating careful consideration of material selection during sensor specification.
Abrasion Resistance
How resistant are the media exposed materials to abrasive substances?
While the thicker metal diaphragms employed in bonded foil strain gauge sensors offer some degree of protection against abrasion, the inherent softness of the metal relative to materials like ceramics renders them susceptible to gradual erosion over time, especially when exposed to high-velocity abrasive media. This erosion can lead to surface irregularities, impacting the sensor’s performance and potentially compromising its long-term reliability. In applications involving abrasive substances, careful consideration of the diaphragm material and expected wear rates is paramount to ensure adequate sensor longevity.
High Pressure Spikes
What are the chances of a noticeable effect on the sensors operational performance, or damage to the sensors internal components, from exposure to very dynamic or quickly changing pressures, such as hydraulic pressure spikes or water hammer?
The inherent robustness and high-pressure capability of bonded foil strain gauge sensors, conferred by their thick metal diaphragms, render them exceptionally resilient to dynamic pressure fluctuations and spikes. However, exposure to extreme pressure transients, such as those encountered in hydraulic systems or water hammer events, may induce subtle yet perceptible shifts in sensor calibration. While these shifts are typically minor and do not compromise the sensor’s structural integrity, recalibration might be necessary to maintain optimal accuracy in critical applications.
Overpressure Handling
How affected is the accuracy performance of the sensor by an overpressure condition, where the pressure exceeds 100% of range?
The accuracy performance of bonded foil strain gauge pressure sensors is significantly compromised when subjected to overpressure conditions exceeding 100% of their specified range. This is primarily attributed to the inherent yielding or loss of elasticity in the metal diaphragm, which results in permanent deformation. This deformation alters the sensor’s calibration and introduces non-linearities, leading to substantial errors in pressure measurements. Additionally, repeated overpressure events can exacerbate these effects, causing progressive degradation in accuracy and potentially rendering the sensor unusable. Therefore, careful attention to overpressure protection and selection of sensors with adequate overpressure ratings is critical for ensuring reliable and accurate performance.
Very Low Pressure Ranges (<100 mbar)
How well does it perform measuring very low pressures with a pressure range lower than 100 mbar?
The performance of bonded foil strain gauges on metal sensing diaphragms is challenged when measuring very low pressures (below 100 mbar). To achieve adequate sensitivity in this range, larger and thinner diaphragms are required. However, this design compromise leads to reduced stiffness and increased susceptibility to hysteresis effects, where the sensor output varies depending on the pressure history. Moreover, at such low pressures, thermal effects and noise become more prominent, further impacting accuracy and stability.
Low Pressure Ranges (100-1000 mbar)
How well does it perform measuring low pressures with a pressure range between 100 and 1000 mbar?
While bonded foil strain gauges on metal sensing diaphragms excel in medium to high-pressure ranges, their performance is less optimal in the low-pressure regime (100 to 1000 mbar). The requirement for larger, thinner diaphragms to achieve adequate sensitivity at these pressures introduces challenges. The reduced stiffness of thinner diaphragms leads to diminished elasticity, potentially amplifying hysteresis effects. Furthermore, the increased susceptibility to thermal gradients and noise can compromise measurement accuracy and stability at these lower pressures.
Medium Pressure Ranges (1-100 bar)
How well does it perform measuring medium pressures with a pressure range between 1 and 100 bar?
Within the medium pressure range (1-100 bar), bonded foil strain gauges on metal sensing diaphragms demonstrate favorable performance characteristics. As pressure increases within this range, the necessity for larger, thinner diaphragms diminishes, leading to enhanced diaphragm stiffness and improved elasticity. This translates to increased output sensitivity and accuracy, showcasing the technology’s strengths in this pressure regime. However, it is crucial to recognize that bonded foil strain gauges may not achieve the same level of performance as other technologies like thin-film strain gauges, particularly at the lower end of this medium pressure range, due to their inherently lower sensitivity.
High Pressure Ranges (100-1000 bar)
How well does it perform measuring high pressures with a pressure range between 100 and 1000 bar?
The combination of high-strength materials, fully-welded construction, and a proven track record of reliability establishes bonded foil strain gauges on metal sensing diaphragms as one of the go-to technologies for high-pressure applications (100-1000 bar). The robust design readily withstands the rigors of demanding environments like hydraulic systems, where extreme pressures and mechanical stresses are commonplace.
Very High Pressure Ranges (>1000 bar)
How well does it perform measuring very high pressures with a pressure range greater than 1000 bar?
The inherent robustness of bonded foil strain gauges coupled with their all-welded stainless-steel construction makes them exceptionally well-suited for the demanding conditions of very high-pressure applications exceeding 1000 bar. These sensors exhibit exceptional strength and proven reliability, making them ideal for critical applications like hydraulics and other extreme pressure environments. Moreover, the established manufacturing processes for bonded foil strain gauges are conducive to smaller production batches, aligning well with the niche nature of very high-pressure applications. This translates to greater commercial viability compared to technologies requiring larger production volumes to achieve cost-effectiveness.
Absolute Pressure Ranges
Can this sensor technology be easily adapted to measure absolute pressures, or pressures referenced to a hard vacuum?
Adapting bonded foil strain gauge technology for absolute pressure measurement presents significant design challenges. It necessitates the incorporation of a stable vacuum reference cavity within the sensor assembly, increasing complexity and manufacturing costs. This is further compounded by the fact that bonded foil strain gauges are predominantly utilized in higher pressure ranges where the need for precise vacuum referencing is often less critical. In these applications, a practical approach involves offsetting the sensor output by one atmosphere during signal conditioning, simplifying the design and leveraging the inherent advantages of bonded foil strain gauges for high-pressure measurements.
Accuracy
What level of accuracy performance is achievable from the combined effects of linearity, hysteresis, short term repeatability, temperature errors, and long term stability?
While the thick metal diaphragm inherently exhibits good elasticity and repeatability within its operating limits, the adhesive bonding process used to attach foil strain gauges introduces complexities that impact overall accuracy. The adhesive layer itself can exhibit hysteresis and susceptibility to thermal variations, leading to measurement errors, particularly during pressure and temperature cycling. This variability makes it challenging to implement effective compensation techniques to achieve high levels of accuracy across a wide range of operating conditions. As a result, the combined effects of linearity, hysteresis, short-term repeatability, temperature errors, and long-term stability can lead to a moderate accuracy performance compared to technologies with more direct strain gauge integration such as thin-film and silicon chip strain gauge pressure sensor.
Output Sensitivity
What is the level and quality of the output produced from the transducer technology, before any signal conditioning electronics is added?
The output signal generated by bonded foil strain gauges, prior to signal conditioning, is relatively low compared to other pressure sensing technologies. This is due to the inherently lower gauge factor of metal foil strain gauges, which quantifies their sensitivity to strain. As a result, a given pressure change induces a smaller resistance change in the bonded foil gauge compared to semiconductor-based strain gauges found in piezoresistive sensors. While this lower output signal can be amplified and processed by subsequent electronics, it’s important to consider its implications during sensor selection and system design, particularly in applications requiring high sensitivity or low-noise performance.
Frequency Response
How quickly does the sensor’s output respond to changes in pressure?
Bonded foil strain gauge pressure sensors exhibit a moderate response time to pressure changes, primarily due to the characteristics of their construction. The use of medium-sized metal diaphragms, though advantageous in terms of robustness, introduces a certain degree of inertia and damping. Furthermore, the adhesive bonding process used to attach the strain gauges introduces an additional layer of compliance that can further attenuate the diaphragm’s response to rapid pressure fluctuations, unlike directly depositied thin-film strain gauges where this effect is negligible.
Compare with other pressure sensor technologies
How do pressure sensors that use a metal diaphragm with bonded foil strain gauges compare to other technologies?
| Sensing technology | Si-Chip | Si-Isolated | Thick-Film | Var-Cap | Thin-Film | BFSG |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sensing diaphragm material | Excellent | Excellent | Fair | Fair | Good | Good |
| Media compatibility | Bad | Good | Excellent | Excellent | Good | Good |
| Oil fill leak risk | Excellent | Bad | Excellent | Excellent | Excellent | Excellent |
| Pressure containment | Poor | Good | Fair | Fair | Excellent | Excellent |
| Small size | Excellent | Good | Fair | Poor | Good | Fair |
| Corrosion resistance | Bad | Good | Excellent | Excellent | Fair | Fair |
| Abrasion resistance | Bad | Bad | Excellent | Excellent | Fair | Fair |
| High pressure spikes | Bad | Poor | Fair | Poor | Good | Good |
| Overpressure rating | Good | Excellent | Fair | Good | Poor | Poor |
| Very low pressure < 100mb | Good | Poor | Bad | Good | Bad | Bad |
| Low pressure 100…1000mb | Good | Good | Poor | Good | Bad | Bad |
| Medium pressure 1…100bar | Fair | Excellent | Excellent | Fair | Good | Fair |
| High pressure 100…1000bar | Bad | Good | Fair | Bad | Excellent | Good |
| Very high pressure > 1000bar | Bad | Bad | Bad | Bad | Good | Excellent |
| Absolute pressure ranges | Fair | Excellent | Good | Good | Bad | Bad |
| Accuracy | Excellent | Good | Poor | Fair | Good | Fair |
| Output Sensitivity | Excellent | Excellent | Fair | Excellent | Good | Fair |
| Frequency response | Excellent | Good | Fair | Poor | Good | Fair |
| Comparison rating (90 max) | 56 | 63 | 59 | 61 | 62 | 57 |
Which technology to use for your application?
Find out whether bonded foil strain gauge pressure sensors will be the most suitable choice for your application compared to other technologies.
Checklist for bfsg pressure sensor requirements
Define your bonded metal foil strain gauge pressure sensor requirements using this checklist:
- Pressure range?
- Overpressure?
- Output signal?
- Dynamic response?
- Accuracy?
- Electrical connection?
- Process connection?
- Size dimensions?
- Process media type?
- Media temperature range?
- Environment temperature range?
- Environment shock and vibration?
- Shock pressures?